Pros and cons of the Death Penalty Essay

The death penalty, legitimate curse of death as a punishment for damaging criminal law. Techniques for execution have included such practices as torturous killing, stoning, suffocating, consuming at the stake, skewering, and decapitating. Today the death penalty is normally practiced by deadly gas or infusion, electric shock, hanging, or shooting. Capital punishment is the most disputable correctional practice in the cutting edge world. The United States stands separated from the general patterns on the death penalty. It is the main Western industrialized country where executions despite everything happen. Besides, it is the main country that consolidates visit executions with an exceptionally evolved lawful framework portrayed by regard for singular rights. A portion of the advantages and disadvantages are as per the following: Aces Just Punishment- A discipline is simply on the off chance that it perceives the earnestness of the wrongdoing. â€Å"Let the discipline fit the crime† is a by and large acknowledged and sound statute. In organizing criminal sentences, society must figure out what discipline fits the planned taking of guiltless human life. To be proportionate to the offense of inhumane homicide, the punishment for such an offense must recognize the sacredness of human life. Without a capital punishment, the criminal law’s punishments will basically â€Å"top out† and won't separate homicide from different offenses. Just if the condemning structure takes into account a significantly more prominent punishment for homicide will the scope of punishments completely mirror the earnestness of closure the life of a guiltless individual. Discouragement capital punishment is likewise supported due to its impediment impact, which spares the lives of blameless people by debilitating potential killers. Rationale underpins the end that death penalty is the best obstruction for planned killings. A capital sentence isâ certainly a more dreaded punishment than a jail term. The lengths to which indicted killers go to dodge burden of this sentence unmistakably shows this reality, as do interviews with jail detainees. Undoubtedly, capital punishment doesn't discourage all killings. But since a capital sentence is more extreme than different punishments, it is sensible to accept that its reality will lead probably some potential killers to rule against gambling execution. As the Supreme Court has watched, â€Å"There are painstakingly thought about killings, for example, the homicide for enlist, where the conceivable punishment of death may well go into the chilly math that goes before the choice to act.† Debilitation Capital discipline additionally serves to adequately keep killers from slaughtering once more. This weakening impact is especially significant in view of the proceeding with hazard presented by the individuals who have just taken a human life. For instance, as indicated by information from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, of 52,000 state jail detainees spending time in jail for homicide in 1984, an expected 810 had recently been sentenced for homicide. Had a portion of these killers been given capital punishment for their first killings, blameless individuals would have been saved. . Just a capital sentence can for all time end the danger to others presented by the most genuine killers. Capital punishment offers conclusion to the victim’s families who have endured to such an extent. It gives a discipline and impediment to somebody who’s as of now condemned to life in jail. Detainee parole or escapes can allow hoodlums to slaughter. Cons-Risk to the Innocent-The hazard that an honest individual may be executed, Unlike all other criminal disciplines, capital punishment is irrevocable,(IRREVERSIBLE) The death penalty COSTS MORE THAN INCARCERATION A homicide preliminary regularly takes any longer when capital punishment is at issue than when it isn't. Suit costs †including the hour of judges, examiners, open protectors, and court correspondents, and the significant expenses of briefs †are for the most part borne by the citizen. A recent report demonstrated that were capital punishment to be reintroduced in New York, the expense of the capital preliminary alone would be more than twofold the expense of a real existence term in jail. It is uncouth and abuses the â€Å"cruel and unusual† statement in the Bill of Rights,some individuals accept. We as a general public need to move away from the â€Å"eye for an eye† retribution mindset if progress is to progress. It sends an inappropriate message: why murder individuals who slaughter individuals to show executing isn't right. Some jury individuals are hesitant to convict in the event that it implies executing somebody. The prisoner’s family should experience the ill effects of seeing their adored one put to death by the state. It is futile in that it doesn’t breath life into the casualty back. Capital punishment is racially one-sided against African Americans Factual proof directed on instances of comparable wrongdoings found that African American litigants are more than multiple times as prone to be executed as their White partners. A comparable report noticed that White respondents face practically zero chance of execution when their casualty is African-American. While African Americans make up just 13% of the U.S. populace, over 40% of death-row detainees are African-American. Considering these gross imbalances, the continuation of the death penalty comprises appalling separation. it is additionally evident that those waiting for capital punishment come lopsidedly from low-salary and horror geographic territories. That such regions are disproportionatelyâ populated by African Americans is a terrible relationship, painting a disturbing picture of a country that needs correspondence. Missteps can be made, Advances in legal medication and DNA testing are prompting increasingly more exoneration’s of sentenced hoodlums.

Ideas About How to Conclude an Argumentative Essay

Ideas About How to Conclude an Argumentative Essay In essay writing, the conclusion of your argumentative paper is one of the most important sections of the writing process. Your conclusion should bring your readers to the cream and peak of all they have been reading from the start. This requirement demands that you have to take an ascending tone where the best of all comes in the end so that your paper does not end on a plateau or in a valley. This way, you will present your audience with a reason to remember your essay. This article, therefore, seeks to share with you some of the proven nuggets that will embellish and bolster your conclusion-writing skills. Why it’s important to write a good conclusion for argumentative essay Understanding why writing a good conclusion of an argumentative essay is important is a great way to start you off on the path to mastery. But why is this tail-end part of your essay all that weighty? First, you should understand that this is the only place you have to put your best foot forward by bringing your readers to a climax. Second, all humans are naturally wired to get the best at the end of any process. When you end anything on a lower note, they will see you as a person who has backtracked on your promises and have given up some of the determination you had at the beginning or along the way. Naturally, it is easier for people to forgive a false start than a bad ending. Third, the conclusion of your essay is the last opportunity you have to argue and cement your case. This chance allows you to show the reader how and why you have been defending your thesis. Fourth, your conclusion allows you to call your readers to action. This is the only place you have to explicitly tell them the stand they need to adopt and the importance of them seeing what you were writing from your personal perspective. Fifth, the ending of your essay is the last chance you have to prove faith in what you have been arguing. It allows you not just to argue, but also to cement the arguments you have been making and show their merit. Rephrase your thesis One of the biggest pillars of how to end an argumentative essay is rephrasing your essay’s thesis. Your thesis is your personal position on the subject matter, and it is the reason for the evidence as well as all the other arguments you made in the paper. For you to end your essay on a strong footing, you should rephrase your thesis. By restating your thesis, you will be giving the reader the opportunity to remember what you have been arguing and standing for throughout the paper. But you have to avoid the temptation of repeating the thesis directly. By bringing your thesis back to mind, you will be tying up the value and focus of all the arguments and the evidence you have been providing as the essay progressed. Additionally, the restatement of your thesis shows your readers that you are still holding to the primary position you took on the topic at hand. This way, you show your audience that you have kept yourself true to your promise, and you have not swerved off the road you began on. Reviewing your reasons and main pieces of evidence Reviewing the reasons and major pieces of evidence is one of the best tips on ending an argumentative essay conclusion. You should revisit and highlight the key evidence and reasons you discussed to defend your thesis. But why should you take this approach in ending your argumentative essay? The reason is that an argumentative essay centers on your ability to make your readers have an appreciative and positive view of your research, reasons, and the opinions you have expressed in the essay. That is why you need to revisit all the pieces of evidence you used to bolster and validate your thesis. The reason here is that wherever there is an argument, there must be evidence to support it. So, by stating your evidence, you are just making your essay live up to its nameâ€"argumentativeâ€" because it argues a case. You need to summarize those arguments in a few sentences so that your reader can remember how you successfully defended the thesis you have already restated in the preceding sentence. Make a call to action The last pillar you need to incorporate in the conclusion of your argumentative essay is the call to action. After telling readers what you feel is the best way to think, you should also tell them what to do with that position. The call to action answers the “So what?” question where you need to clearly show the reader how they or the society will benefit if they adopt your stand and vice versa. Remember, the only way to win an argument and cause people to cross the flow is to show them the benefits of adopting your position or the consequences of not doing so. That is why to write an effective call to action, you should use a descriptive approach that paints a portrait of your envisioned reality based on the acceptance or rejection of your arguments. Get help with argumentative essay writing help This article has provided you with a comprehensive argumentative essay conclusion writing guide intended to equip you with the skills you need to perfect your conclusions. It has taken you through all the main components of the conclusion and how you need to write them, the importance of your essay’s conclusion, and how to do it right. You now have the ball in your court to up your game in this area. But if you come to a point where the usual disruptions of life don’t allow you to write your essay assignments, you can reach out for help here. Our company has expert writers who are dedicated to helping you beat your deadlines in a professional and affordable manner. You are welcome to contact us anytime.

George Orwell s Plea For Understanding - 2384 Words

Kervick 10 Orwell?s Plea for Understanding George Orwell has gone done in history as one of the greatest novelists of the Twentieth Century. His works Animal Farm and 1984 have been acclaimed masterpieces of social commentary. While his less known work ?Shooting an Elephant? is perceived as imperial criticism, it is actually much more. It constitutes his public declaration of why he chose to leave his job, live for years with the poorest of the poor and flip his political views upside down. Born Eric Arthur Blair in Motihari Bengal1, Orwell was always acutely aware of his social position. His father, Richard Walmesly Blair, worked as an administrator in the Opium Department of the Indian Government. Richards marriage to Ida Mabel Limouzin Blair2, the daughter of an unsuccessful teak merchant, firmly established his family as members of the landless gentry which constituted a large part of the Sahib class. This being the case, Orwell was born into an ?atmosphere of impoverished snobbery.?3 he would later try to pinpoint his family?s social standing by calling it the ?lower-upper-middle class.?4 This position divided him from his peers when he finally started school. Returning to England in 1905 at age two with his mother and brother, it wasn?t until his father retired and joined them in 19115 that Orwell started his education.6 Despite the scarcity of money, Orwell was sent to St. Cyprian?s, a prestigious boarding school in Eastbourne7, along the southern coast of England.Show MoreRelatedDifferent Forms Of Government Treat Their Citizens2121 Words   |  9 Pagesdifferent ways. George Orwell illuminates a society in which the government has complete control and people are forced to follow any and all demands from their leaders. This dystopic society shows how a completely totalitarian government connects with the people. Oceania, the country in which the main character Winston lives, is ruled by â€Å"The Party†. In order to stop a revolution there is surveillance at all times and citizens are â€Å"vaporized† if they are believed to be nonconformists (Orwell). In the novelRead More Terrorism Essay2696 Words   |  11 PagesGeorg e Orwell once said, â€Å"Political language— with variations this is true of all political parties, from Conservatives to Anarchists—is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable, and to give an appearance of solidity to pure wind.† In today’s modern society, the world is continuing to become smaller and more interconnected than ever before due to media networks such as Cable News Network (CNN) providing round-the-clock news coverage and the Internet. In the last few decades, bothRead MoreHistory of Social Work18530 Words   |  75 Pages....................4 Understanding History through Historical Phases .......................................................................................................5 Photos of Walter Friedlander Simon Patten 9who used the term social work first time) ....................................9 The Settlement House ..................................................................................... .......................................................10 Understanding the History of Social Welfare

The Revolution Of The Communist Party - 1263 Words

When you are in a revolution as large as the Bolsheviks were in Russia, it can be reasonably expected that everyone in their group is in on it. There are a myriad of different opinions possible but if you were a member of the Communist party, you would think you would be expected to commit to and follow communist beliefs. In the article â€Å"Paper Communists† Gayle Lonergan, from the University of Oxford, paints a picture of men who saw the communist party as a way out. She documents how many men saw â€Å"such benefits as preferential food rations and free health care† (p. 139)(1) and wanted to have the opportunity to get out of the farm country. Lonergan also argues the key issue of how much of the communist population was actually committed to†¦show more content†¦It is clear Evaluation The dominant purpose of this article seems to be to say that the Bolsheviks only managed to stay afloat as a movement because after they were victorious in the early part of the civil war, peasants saw them as the attractive option which to ride on. Leading to (for a short period of time) an incredibly large influx of peasants. Lonergan spends the majority of the article walking on a tightrope, saying that it was embarrassing for the Bolsheviks to have their ranks filled with all of these inexperienced men looking to get out of work while at the same time documenting the irony of the truth that the Bolsheviks based in Central Russia did not have the manpower to convince the masses outside of Moscow and Petrograd. They would not have been able to reach the further points of Russia and Siberia because people were not necessarily interested in the Communist beliefs there but they were interested at the opportunity of sitting in an office all day rather than manual labour on a farm. It i s clear that even though the â€Å"Paper Communists† had a strong lacsidaisical attitude towards the movement they were a key part of the advancement of the Bolshevik movement. Lonergan disagrees with both some scholars that she references in the article as well as â€Å"the traditional

Ronald Reagan Free Essays

Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in Tampico, Illinois, to John Edward â€Å"Jack† Reagan and Nellie Wilson Reagan. His father nicknamed him â€Å"Dutch,† saying he looked like â€Å"a fat little Dutchman. † During Reagan’s early childhood, his family lived in multiple towns, finally settling in Dixon, Illinois, in 1920, where Jack Reagan opened a shoe store. We will write a custom essay sample on Ronald Reagan or any similar topic only for you Order Now In 1928, Ronald Reagan graduated from Dixon High School, where he was an athlete and student body president and performed in school plays. During summer vacations, he worked as a lifeguard in Dixon. Enrolling t Eureka College in Illinois on an athletic scholarship, Reagan majored in economics and sociology. There, he played football, ran track, captained the swim team, served as student council president and acted in school productions. After graduating in 1932, he found a Job as a radio sports announcer in Iowa. In 1938, Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman. They got engaged at the Chicago theatre and then married on January 26, 1940. Together they had two children, Maureen, and Christine (who was born in 1947 but only lived one day), and adopted a third, Michael. Following arguments about Reagan’s political ambitions, Wyman filed for divorce in 1948. The divorce was finalized in 1949. He is the only US president to have been divorced. Reagan met actress Nancy Davis in 1949 after she contacted him while he was president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood (she had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis). She described their meeting by saying, â€Å"l don’t know if it was exactly love at first sight, but it was pretty close. † They were engaged at Chasen’s restaurant in Los Angeles and were married n March 4, 1952, at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley. They had two children named Patti and Ron. Friends described the Reagans’ relationship as close, authentic and intimate. He often called her â€Å"Mommy† she called him â€Å"Ronnie†. He once wrote to her, â€Å"Whatever I treasure and enjoy all would be without meaning if I didn’t have you. When he was in the hospital in 1981, she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent. In a letter to U. S. citizens written in 1994, Reagan wrote, â€Å"l have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer’s disease. I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience†, and in 1998, while Reagan was suffering by Alzheimer’s, Nancy told Vanity Fair, â€Å"Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it’s true. It did. I can’t imagine life without him. † Reagan stepped into the national political spotlight in 1964, when he gave a well- received televised speech for Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater, a dedicated conservative. Two years later, in his first race for public office, Reagan defeated Democratic incumbent Edmund â€Å"Pat† Brown Sr. y almost 1 million votes, winning the California governorship. He was re-elected to a second term in 1970. How to cite Ronald Reagan, Papers

The texts you have studied Essay Example For Students

The texts you have studied Essay Stories of the gothic fiction genre first began to be written in the late 18th century to the early 19th century, the genre was very popular from the 1760s through to the 1820s. Famous authors from this time include Mary Shelley, whom wrote Frankenstein. However the genre of gothic fiction is still popular today, which is shown by famous authors such as Stephen King, that have written many stories within the gothic fiction genre. Gothic Fiction is mostly considered to be horror writing, with tales of murder and mystery, to scare the reader and often have supernatural links or instances. The supernatural instances are often reflected within the conventions of gothic fiction, usually the evil characters have a supernatural appearance. The conventions of gothic fiction are; Isolation, Setting and Atmosphere, Superstition, Character and Good versus Evil. The two stories that these conventions were investigated in were Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and The Vampire Of Kaldenstein by Frederick Cowles. We will write a custom essay on The texts you have studied specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The convention of Isolation plays a big part in stories of the Gothic Fiction Genre, the main character, or the hero of the story is often either emotionally (not a particularly sociable kind of person The Vampire Of Kaldenstein. ) or physically ( wandering the more remote parts of Europe The Vampire Of Kaldenstein. ) isolated from other people, sometimes both. This is the case in Frankenstein, he is both physically and emotionally isolated when he is working on his creature, and he does this again when he begins work on the second creature ( I told Clerval I wished to make the tour of Scotland alone I may be absent for a month or two, but do not interfere with my motions Frankenstein), however in The Vampire Of Kaldenstein, although the character leaves to go without his friend he is not so emotionally isolated, it is more a case of physical isolation. This isolation from other people often begins to cause a flaw within the hero of the story, as when they are not around people they begin to believe that it does not matter what they do because no-one will find out. This is well represented in Frankenstein, where Victor creates his Creature and when he leaves to begin work on his second creature. Both the hero of Frankenstein and The Vampire Of Kaldenstein, have a major flaw, as is often the way with the Gothic Fiction Genre. In these two stories, both the heroes ignore warnings; Frankenstein is warned by his teacher not to carry on his research into creating life or blurring the line between life and death (Life and Death appeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through Frankenstein) and in The Vampire Of Kaldenstein the hero ignores warning to stay away from the old castle in which the vampire lives ( the man that has lived in them for three hundred years? I laughed The Vampire Of Kaldenstein). The actions of the characters are also often influenced by the setting and the atmosphere around them. And the actions of the characters can often affect the atmosphere, they can create a more fearful atmosphere by being afraid themselves (repeated the priest with a tremor in his voice The Vampire Of Kaldenstein), the characters can also often create a mysterious atmosphere (They seemed morose and unresponsive and I had the impression that they shared some dread secret The Vampire Of Kaldenstein). The setting in Gothic Fiction is often an isolated area, and the buildings and furniture are often run down (a small church sadly in need of repair The Vampire Of Kaldenstein). The buildings are often large and imposing so to add another element of fear. These buildings often include churches (a church, Romanesque in type The Vampire OF Kaldenstein), with graveyards, representing good, within an evil surrounding. The buildings are often scattered with superstitious and religious objects ( .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 , .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .postImageUrl , .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 , .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:hover , .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:visited , .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:active { border:0!important; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:active , .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657 .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ucbdc2a419b9b2580c1e4b5703a4da657:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Gender Inequality The Vampire Of Kaldenstein), which people believe will protect them from evil. The cross is often used, both as a crucifix and as a sign made by humans, in Gothic Fiction, as a way people try to protect themselves (Some made the sign of the cross The Vampire Of Kaldenstein) These superstitions often begin as rumours and soon become rules by which the people live. These superstitious rules are the characters ways of combating evil with good. Good versus evil; this is one of the most important conventions of gothic fiction, and links to all of the other conventions. Religious buildings and people such as churches, are usually symbols of good ( when a priest came in through a side door and at once gave me a friendly greeting The Vampire Of Kaldenstein). Whereas buildings and space below ground are associated with evil, often representing that going underground and deeper are moving closer to Hell. These underground areas are often where evil is found (We have certain underground apartments, and his excellency uses one as his bed-chamber The Vampire Of Kaldenstein). These evil characters often have an unnatural and supernatural appearance (a being which had the shape of a man, but apparently of gigantic stature Frankenstein). All of the conventions of gothic fiction are linked and run into each other, and they are all used often together, to create fear, and to scare the reader.

The Images of September 11, 2001 †Psychology Essay

The Images of September 11, 2001 – Psychology Essay Free Online Research Papers The Images of September 11, 2001 Psychology Essay On September 11, 2001, two planes crashed into the World Trade Centre killing almost three thousand people. During the catastrophic moments before the twin towers collapsed, William Wik, an assistant director for a financial services company on the 92nd floor of the South Tower, informed his wife that he was not prepared to flee and that had to go back into the burning building to try help the remaining survivors. After the South Tower collapsed, William Wik’s body was found amongst the rubble. The attacks on the Word Trade Centre have perhaps highlighted various instances of human endeavour of which William Wik’s willingness to intervene was one example. But why do some people appear to act so selflessly or courageously in such situations? Why would someone rush into a burning building to try and save its occupants, dive into a river to save a drowning person or help someone that had collapsed in the street? The traditional image of a saviour who goes to the assistance of others with little regard for their safety evokes images of a heroic figure. Someone that is brave, strong, courageous and decisive. It is the image of someone that might charge into a burning building to rescue a child seen crying helplessly in the top floor window as flames engulf the rest of the building. A different but similar image of a savour would be someone in the mould of Mother Theresa – the selfless and altruistic ‘Good Samaritan’ – who instead of walking past a person in need would instead provide appropriate aid and assistance. These images perhaps suggest that those who intervene in such situations possess personal characteristics over and above those typical to the societal norm. However, a number of studies suggest that personality type alone does not determine behaviour. Instead, consideration needs to be given to other factors, particularly situational circumstances when determining the reasons as to why a bystander will intervene. Hartshorne and May (1929) conducted a study to measure the likelihood of children finding stories for hospitalised children, donating money to charity and giving small gifts to need children. They assumed that they were measuring the degree of a person’s ‘altruistic personality type’. Aside from weaknesses in the methodology of the experiences and the lack of consideration of other factors such as social conformity that might have affected the results, the study showed little correlation between children helping in one situation and then helping in another. Later studies by Batson, (1998); Piliavin Charng (1990), suggest that people with high scores on personality tests of altruism are not much more likely to help that those with lower scores. Whilst personality factors may have a bearing, studies have shown that factors other than personality eg. situation pressures, social conformity, can have a considerable bearing on whether a bystander will intervene to help someone in need. A number of studies suggest that there are gender differences in the likelihood and extent of pro-social behaviour. Where the intervention requires a degree of heroism or there is an audience present, it would seem that men are more likely to intervene than women (Eagly Crowly, 1986; Crowley, 1987). Men were more likely to help women, rather than other men, particularly where the woman was attractive. This may be explained in evolutionary terms on the basis that women find heroism an attractive trait in men, an attraction derived from ancestral times when men were required to be courageous to ensure survival. Whilst heroism in dangerous circumstances may decrease the risk of survival chances, it would increase the person’s attractiveness to potential partners and accordingly has remained in the gene pool. Where the intervention required a more nurturant or long-term intervention, more women will help than men (George, Caroll, Kersnick et al 1998, McGuire 1994). This would be consistent with traditional social views as to the gender roles of men being heroic and women being nurturing or caring. Aronson 2005, suggests that cultural evidence suggests the same patterns. Other studies have suggested that there are cultural differences in relation to a bystander inventing to help a victim. Whiting and Whiting (1975) considered the behaviour of young children between the ages of 3 and 10 from six different countries: US, Indian, Japan, Phillipines, Mexico and Kenya. Whiting and Whiting found that on one end of the scale, 100% of children in Kenya were high on empathy, whilst on the end, only 8% of children in the US were altruistic. Eisenberg and Mussen (1989) reviewed several studies and concluded that there were large differences from one culture to another. Eysenk (2000) suggests that industrialised societies such as those in the US place considerable emphasis on competition and personal success, which is likely to reduce the likelihood of co-operation and altruism. Additionally, family structures in non-industrialised cultures are likely to be such that altruistic or helping behaviour is more likely to be fostered or developed to a greater degree. The degree of altruism is also likely to be influenced by the prevailing social norm and the pressure – express or implied – to conform to those norms. Milgram (1977) suggest that person from small towns as opposed to large industrial cities are more likely to intervene to help a person in need. The perceived characteristics of the victim are also likely to have an influence in the likelihood of a bystander intervening. Pilivian, Rodin and Pilivian (1969) conducted an experiment involving a man collapsing on the New York subway. When he smelled of alcohol and carried a bottle of alcohol, he was far less likely to be helped than we he appeared sober and carried a walking stick instead of a bottle. Piliavin et al (1975) conducted a study suggesting that where the victim had a prominent facial birthmark, the likelihood of a bystander helping reduced to 61%, whereas a far higher proportion of bystanders would intervene where the victim did not have such a birthmark. Similar results were found where an artificial blood capsule was used by the victim to give the appearance of blood. Studies suggest that the closeness of the relationship between the person requiring help and the bystander is a factor that contributes towards the likelihood of helping (Geer Jarmecky, 1973; Moriarity 1975, Tikker 1970) or where there is a relationship where the victim is particularly dependant on the bystander (Berkowitz, 1978). Findings by Burnstein et al (1994) suggest that the tendency varies according to the age of the victim. Where the situation was involving a ‘life or death’ situation, the likelihood of the victim being helped generally decreased the older they were. Where the situation involved an ‘everyday situation’ rather than a ‘life or death’ situation, infants and the elderly were more likely to be helped that those who were young adults or middle aged. The individual characteristics of the bystander will have an influence on them intervening in a particular situation. Bystanders who have relevant skills or expertise were the most likely to offer help to a victim (Huston et al, 1981). Gaertner and Dovidio (1977) suggested that a perceived similarity between the bystander and the person requiring help can influence the likelihood of intervention. However, the degree of perceived similarity may not need so great, where the situation is one which involves a genuine emergency. A number of studies have shown that situational factors have an influence over the likelihood of a bystander intervening. Where the situation has an ambiguous quality about it, for example, someone who may equally appear drunk or suffering from a heart attack, the likelihood of intervention is reduced (Brickman et al, 1982). Batson et al (1978) suggested that bystanders take into account not only the perceived emergency itself, but also the task that they were undertaking when becoming aware of the emergency. In one experiment, participants were informed that they had to hurry to a destination. Of those that were told to hurry, only 10% stopped to help the victim, compared to 80% who had not been told that they had to hurry to their destination. Where the bystander was experiencing guilt, the likelihood of intervention may be higher (McMillen Austin, 1971; Regan 1972). There are contradictory studies as to whether positive or negative states will increase the likelihood of helping. Thompson et al (1980) suggest that negative emotional states do not always necessarily lead to helping, whereas Ibsen et al (1976) suggest that people is a positive or happy emotional state are more likely to intervene or help someone in need. Batson (1991) put forward an empathy-altruism hypothesis to try and explain why people may go to the assistance of others. He suggests that altruistic behaviour is motivated by empathy. The greater degree of empathy, the greater the likelihood of intervention, even though it may involve some cost (or the absence of a benefit) to the person intervening. According to this hypothesis, when we observe someone in distress, two emotional reactions occur. The first is empathetic concern, and the second is our own personal distress or discomfort. Other commentators (Cialdini et al, 1987), (Maner et al 2002) and Preston De Waal 2002, question whether people help others purely out of altruistic concern and instead suggest that a desire to reduce their own distress in someone suffering is a factor in them intervening. According to Cialdini’s negative-state relief model, a person who experiences empathy as a result of seeing some suffering, experiences a degree of emotional distress themselves. In order to reduce their own distress, they take steps to help the person in need. Cialdini suggests that empathic concern should not lead to helping behaviour if steps are taken to remove the feelings of distress usually found with empathy. One of most consistent findings regarding the likelihood of bystander intervention is relation to the number of bystanders perceived to be present at an emergency situation. Numerous studies have demonstrated that â€Å"an individual’s likelihood of giving help decreases as the number of other bystanders also witnessing an emergency increases† (Latanà ©, Nida Wilson, 1981). This apparent ‘bystandar apathy’ was perhaps most apparent in the case of Kitty Genovese. She was stabbed to death, and though 38 people witnessed the murder from their apartments, none of them intervened. Only one person telephoned the police and that was only after considerable thought and only after he had sought the advice from a friend. The police in particular, could not understand why more people had not called the police. Latane and Darley (1968) suggested that a person may be in a more fortunate position where there is just one bystander rather than several. In such a situation, responsibility falls on them personally to take action rather than being spread amongst many. The greater the number of bystanders, the greater the diffusion of responsibility and the less likelihood of intervention. Latanà © and Darley’s (1970) subsequently put forward a decision-making model to try and explain their various findings on bystander intervention. This model involves a sequence of decisions that must be made before intervention takes place:- Is something the matter? Is the event or incident interpreted as one in which assistance is required? Should the bystander accept personal responsibility? What kind of help should be provided by the bystander? Should the help required actually be carried out? Piliavin et al (1981) put forward an arousal / cost-reward model to try and explain the decision making process that a bystander may adopt in deciding whether to intervene:- Becoming aware of someone’s need for help. Experience and degree of arousal Interpreting cues and labeling their state of arousal Working out the rewards and costs associated with different actions Making a decision and acting on it. According to Piliavin et al, the costs and rewards are arguable the most significant factor. Costs of helping could include the risk of physical harm, delay in carrying out other tasks. Rewards of helping could include praise, personal satisfaction. Costs of not helping could be guilt, self-criticism, criticism from others. Rewards of not helping would be less risk of harm and ability to continue with other activities. In conclusion, the various studies show that whether help is given by a bystander to victim depends personal characteristics, situational factors and empathy. The effect of a bystander’s personal characteristics on their likelihood of intervening isn’t as pronounced as one might expect, although factors such as mood, social or moral values, and competence do have an influence. It would be interesting to examine situations where many or all of these influencing factors are present and assess which factors, if any, have a more dominant effect over others. However, this give to methodological and practical difficulties in assessing the weighting or influence of each factor. Learning reflection. I’ve found doing this assignment very difficult. No so much in the subject matter itself, but in simply having the time and space to consider all the materials and then being in the right frame of mind to think about the issues. Doing the job which I do involves something similar to writing these types of assignments – the subject matter is different but both involve wading through documents and evidence, evaluating the information and then putting together an argument. However, the job is significantly more burdensome – much more material to read, in a shorter space of time, together with other significant pressures and conflicts. More often than not, my brain is shot to pieces by the time I get home. Analysing further information perhaps results in overload. I tend to work best when I’m relaxed and have the time and space to think about the issues. Perhaps it would be easier for me to do several psychology assignments concurrently rather than consecutiv ely with set time limits. I have to undertake several parallel streams of work concurrently as part of my job, so it wouldn’t be something new to me. Bystander intervention has quite an interesting topic, although would seem that whatever can be said on bystander intervention has already been said in the various studies or texts on the subject. The assignment title is quite generalised. I would have preferred to ‘drill down’ into a specific aspect of bystander intervention and focus on that. That may have provided an opportunity to be more innovative or original. Otherwise, its difficult not to simply present information that’s previously been presented by someone else. I read somewhere that when doing these types of assignments a person should evaluate and critique the various studies. Critique is all very well and good and saying for example, that a particular methodology is flawed because participants to an experiment were given ‘mood pills’ that would affect their empathy, but critique of itself is annoying unless solutions are also presented or there’s an acknowledgment or understanding as why there were difficulties in the methodology of the experiment in the first place. Research Papers on The Images of September 11, 2001 - Psychology EssayEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThree Concepts of PsychodynamicMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoMind TravelInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementResearch Process Part OneCapital Punishment